Tiahuanaco es una cultura milenaria que se desarrolló en la altiplanicie del Perú antiguo, tuvo su centro principal en territorios de Bolivia, cercano al mítico lago Titicaca. Su origen, longevidad, ruinas e inmensas esculturas son misterios aún no dilucidados por completo, sus secretos yacen ocultos en las alturas de la puna.
En Tiahuanaco se suscitaron hechos antiquísimos que la vinculan con el dios incaico Viracocha, los cronistas narran que la divinidad procede de la civilización Tiahuanaco, y del súbito y tenebroso ocaso, aparecen los incas.
Tiahuanaco es una cultura muy singular, muchos sucesos míticos ocurrieron en su suelo. Fue el contexto donde se originó el mito del dios Viracocha. En el lago Titicaca aconteció la creación del mundo incaico y se creó el sol, la luna y las estrellas; se talló en piedra la primera y segunda creación de gente por género y Viracocha creó en ese preciso entorno a los incas. Por tanto, la cultura tiahuanaco está muy relacionada con el quehacer mítico del dios y los orígenes de la etnia incaica.
Ante tantos eventos míticos he históricos importantes, conviene hacer una reflexión de esta cultura. En este post conocerás algunos aspectos relacionados al origen, significado del nombre, desarrollo y ocaso de Tiahuanaco.
Índice
1. Antecedentes de Tiahuanaco
El territorio se ubica en una altura cercana a los 4000 m.s.n.m. Las primeras noticias de su existencia las relata Cieza de León, P. (2005: Cap. CIV-CV, 262- 265) cuando visita al antiguo Collasuyo y describe el clima, la geografía, los animales y la situación de los pueblos visitados. Cieza describe a Tiahuanaco como un pueblo no muy extenso, pero con grandes edificios, con ruinas abandonadas, sus indagaciones le hacen presumir que está ante una cultura mucho más antigua que los incas.
Ravines, R. (2004: 196) indica que la mayoría de restos arqueológicos desaparecieron por obra de los colonos, quienes se fueron apropiando de las colosales piedras de los monumentos, destruyendo los vestigios que esconden el pasado. Actualmente se conserva el Palacio de Kalasasaya, el Kantatayata, el Pumapunku, la Puerta del Sol, la pirámide de Akapana y algunas estatuas monolíticas.
2. Significado del nombre Tiahuanaco
Dice Ravines, R. (2004: 195-196) que los misterios de esta civilización se hallan por doquier, incluso en el nombre, es aludido como Tiahuanaco o Tiahuanacu o Tiwanaku. En quechua quiere decir santuario o asiento de guanacos, traducción poco apropiada y desestimada por los historiadores.
En otra versión dicen que el nombre es Tiya huanuk que significa luz moribunda, posiblemente derivado según Agustín de Zárate (1555) de Tiguamano o Guanaco que fue un lugar donde el cacique realizaba ofrendas humanas en honor a un ídolo de nombre Ka-Ata-Killa que Ravines traduce como luna menguante.
Para el padre Bernabé Cobo, el nombre arcaico fue Taypicala, voz aimara cuyo significado es piedra del medio o piedra central. Ibid. (2004:195-196).
Según Cerrón, Palomino, R. (2016: 20-21), el significado se encuentra mezclado entre léxicos del idioma aimara y el puquina. La voz Tiahuanaco provendría de thiya wana-quwa que quiere decir la divinidad flamante del confin y estaría haciendo referencia al sol. Descomponiendo la palabra, thiya es aimara significa lugar o parte muy lejos…el fin o el termino del mundo; wana voz puquina cuyo significado es nuevo, flamante; y quwa, de filiación puquina, significa ídolo o divinidad.
Los incas consideraron que había dos confines en la tierra andina: uno ubicado en la costa y es el lugar donde se oculta el sol y el otro en el lago Titicaca. Entonces el nombre adquiere propiedad por hacer referencia a una divinidad (el sol) que se ubica en los confines del lago Titicaca y por el significado de nuevo o flamante puede que aluda el sol del amanecer que asoma todos los días en los confines de la tierra altiplánica.
3. Ubicación
La cede principal está ubicada a quince kilómetros al sureste del lago Titicaca, la ubicación geográfica se encuentra en territorios de Bolivia, se halla a una altura de 3842 m.s.n.m. Tiahuanaco es una cultura muy longeva, según el arqueólogo boliviano Carlos Ponce Sanjinés aparece aproximadamente en 1580 a.C. y se prolonga hasta 1187 d.C. Sorprende a Ponce, C. (1976: 27) su lento y pausado crecimiento cuando lo compara con el rápido e intenso progreso de los incas.
4. Etapas del desarrollo cultural de Tiahuanaco
Estudios de Ponce, C. (1976: 27) determinan que la cultura tiahuanacota anduvo por tres períodos de desarrollo: el aldeano, el urbano y el imperial:
4.1 Etapa aldeana
Como aldea conformaba un pequeño territorio muy limitado, basado en una economía autosuficiente y sin dependencia externa, no existía una casta gobernante que demandara mayor beneficio, el aldeano se satisfacía manteniendo sus ayllus o núcleo familiar y almacenaba semillas para la próxima siembra. La agricultura fue la principal actividad. Otra actividad fue la minería, incipiente y tosca en sus inicios, conocía el cobre, la obsidiana para puntas de flecha, la sodalita para la lapidaria etcétera.
En esta época se inicia la metalurgia del cobre, que requiere el uso de hornos para fundición. Conocían la plata y el oro para sus adornos suntuarios. El uso de hornos y los hallazgos de cerámica indican ayllus o familias especializadas en estas labores. Es una sociedad sin diferencias de clases, no se atisba una clase guerrera, es una sociedad con una vida monótona y sin mayores cambios en el tiempo.
La agricultura destaca como una actividad notable al grado de considerarla como la cultura de la papa, se diferencia de pueblos pre hispánicos donde el sustento principal estuvo en el maíz. El alimento encontró solución gracias al proceso de deshidratación de la papa conservándola en el tiempo como chuño. En estos inicios se van consolidado técnicas diversas que con el decurso del tiempo lograron mayor grado de excelencia. Esta etapa formativa está comprendida en las fases I y II: entre los 237 a.C. y 43 d.C. respectivamente.
4.2 Etapa urbana
El segundo periodo es el urbano, el tiempo y el progreso de sus técnicas permitieron un aumento demográfico sostenido y transmutó la aldea en ciudad. El crecimiento urbano causó el aumento de la población y el incremento de la agricultura, en consecuencia, se obtuvo un exceso de cosechas superando las necesidades de la población. Los excedentes permitieron mantener una clase aristócrata deseosa de crecer más, apareciendo el estado gubernamental y el religioso. Nace la ambición de ejecutar obras monumentales.
Las destrezas ganadas en la época aldeana los convierten en constructores de templos, talladores de esculturas pétreas. En esta etapa se construye el templo de Kalasasaya, el Pumapunku y la pirámide de Akapana. Todo lo dicho demandó mano de obra y especialistas en diversos servicios como: albañiles, canteros, cinceladores, metaleros, pintores, escultores, alfareros, arquitectos ingenieros etcétera. (76 Ibid.).
En esta etapa se adjudicaron el territorio chiripa y una porción de la cultura wankarani, la expansión indica necesidad de tierras de cultivo y dependencia de recursos. Son los fermentos de la futura expansión. Corresponde con la época III en el 299 d.C. Pero el progreso sigue su curso iniciándose la época IV en el 667 d.C. se caracteriza por ser clasista, es una cultura en desarrollo continuo, sobresale el arte, fueron grandes escultores de piedra y excelentes alfareros., primó la estética con motivos decorativos. Se convirtieron en expertos en edificaciones.
Sus construcciones están orientadas hacia los puntos cardinales, lo cual sugiere la presencia de astrónomos o indígenas lectores de ocurrencias cósmicas. Destacan por la perfección de las habilidades y técnicas adquiridas en la época de aldea y un vasto comercio de intercambio mutuo. Pero también aparece una nueva clase: la milicia, se evidencia con las invasiones, en su avance se establecieron en las zonas de Ayacucho, Arica y Atacama, lugares estratégicos que permitieron su expansión militar.
4.3 Etapa imperial
El tercer periodo es de desarrollo imperial, que implica la fase V hacia el 1050 d.C. En el ámbito social dividieron la zona urbana en dos mitades: mitad alta y mitad baja, ambas divisiones espaciales fueron heredadas por los incas. Tuvo un colapso fulminante hacia 1187, Ponce; C. (1976: 86) dice lo siguiente:
“Extraño que hacia el siglo XIII de nuestra era ese imperio se desplomara de súbito y Tiwanaku quedó sumido en el ocaso, por causas aún no elucidadas, descartándose la hipótesis de un cataclismo porque no hay ninguna huella del mismo, ni tampoco por conquista de un pueblo ajeno del que no se divisa rastro. Acaso disgregación política, en que la metrópoli quedó desligada de sus provincias.”
El ocaso de Tiahuanaco ocurrió hacia el siglo XII, el éxodo de sus habitantes produjo una dispersión hacia las cuencas del lago Titicaca. La experiencia vivida permitió el brote de señoríos, uno de los cuales fueron los collas, el otro, los incas, estos últimos conquistaron tiempo después al pueblo colla y tiahuanacota.
5. La mitología de Tiahuanaco
La desintegración de esta cultura, causó la dispersión del pueblo por diversos lugares del mundo andino.
Al respecto Garcilaso de la Vega cuenta que, después del diluvio ocurrido en Tiahuanaco apareció por primera vez el sol en el lago Titicaca y surgió un gran señor —no indica su nombre— quien planteó un reparto territorial en cuatro partes y lo distribuyó así: a Colla Cápac le otorgó el mediodía (sur), a Tocay Cápac el levante (este), a Pinahua Cápac el poniente (oeste) y a Manco Cápac el septentrión (norte). Luego ordenó a cada uno dirigirse a sus territorios para conquistarlo y gobernarlo. Solo Manco Cápac llegó al Cuzco y fundó su imperio.
Cuentan que dicha repartición fue calcada por los incas en su reino y así le pusieron por nombre Tawantinsuyo cuyo significado es: las cuatro regiones reunidas.
La narración de Garcilaso es parca, imprecisa y sumamente abreviada, la fuente donde obtuvo la versión fue por indígenas del Collasuyo y Contisuyo. Solo queda especular, no conocemos quién es el gran señor aparecido de la nada después del diluvio, es posible que refiera a Viracocha, tampoco sabemos quiénes son los actores del mito excepto por Manco Cápac.
Se aprecia que en Tiahuanaco ocurrió un desbande de clanes que culminó en un éxodo masivo con una división territorial en cuatro partes, concedidas a cuatro personajes distintos. O tal vez fue un desbande de clanes a la búsqueda de tierras fértiles como efectivamente ocurrió con Manco Cápac y los hermanos Ayar.
No poseemos información suficiente y competente para interpretar lo sucedido. Investigaciones modernas indican que el centro principal fue abandonado en un éxodo paulatino concentrando poblaciones y asentamientos humanos en los alrededores de la meseta del Collao. La división territorial en cuatro partes es oriunda de Tiahuanaco y fue calcada al territorio incaico. Comentando el ocaso Ravines, R. (2004: 193) dice:
“El resultado fue un retorno a formas de gobierno regionales y a la constitución de los reinos y señoríos que los Incas conquistaron […]”.
6. La religión de Tiahuanaco
Respecto a la religión no es mucho lo rescatado, excepto por la famosa Puerta del Sol donde se admira una divinidad tallada en alto relieve bautizada con el nombre de dios de los báculos.
Ravines, R. (2004:192) dice:
“Un sustrato ideológico común vinculan a Tiahuanaco con Chavín a través de Pucará. El dios de los báculos de Tiahuanaco es el dios de las varas de Chavín y el dios Huiracocha del Estado Inca”.
Pero Ravines no cuenta con sustentos históricos, arqueológicos, míticos o etnológicos para vincular una deidad con otra, por lo tanto, es una opinión personal sin los fundamentos que lo respalden.
Otra hipótesis considera que el dios de los báculos, es el dios Tunupa, pero en el diccionario de Ludovico Bertonio sindica a Tunupa como dios de los aimaras, cultura que no edificó la Puerta del Sol.
Nosotros consideramos que Viracocha es oriundo de Tiahuanaco y su concepción fue parte del saber religioso heredado por Manco Cápac y transmitido a su generación.
7. Conclusión
Tiahuanaco es la cultura más longeva de todo América, tuvo una presencia de 2767 años, su lento y largo desarrollo se condice con su repentina desaparición.
El posible significado de Tiahuanaco es la divinidad flamante del confin sentido implicado con el dios Viracocha.
Las etapas de su formación fueron parte del saber asimilado por los incas, su legado fue: la bipartición y cuatripartición territorial, la construcción de edificaciones, la metalurgia, la ganadería, los tejidos, la astrología, la agricultura, la ubicación y canalización de fuentes hídricas, la expansión a otros territorios indica un poder militar organizado, fueron unos artífices en el oficio de la talla en piedra.
Excepto lo mencionado por Garcilaso de la Vega no poseemos versiones míticas que permitan inferir su historia, su religión, su cosmogonía. La devastación de sus ruinas demuestra el poco interés por el pasado.
En Tiahuanaco está la explicación no solo de la aparición de los incas, sino del rápido desarrollo cultural debido que son herederos de los conocimientos adquiridos en su cuna.
8. Referencias
Cerrón, Palomino, R. (2016). El lenguaje como hermenéutica en la comprensión del pasado: a propósito del puquina en la génesis del imperio incaico. Diálogo Andino N° 49, páginas 11-27. Obtenido de: https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0719-26812016000100004&lng=es&nrm=iso.
Cieza de León, P. (2005). Crónica del Perú el señorío de los incas. Caracas, Venezuela: Fund. Biblioteca Ayacucho. Obtenido de: http://www.biblioteca.org.ar/libros/211665.pdf.
Garcilaso de la Vega, I. (1985). Comentarios reales de los incas. Lima, Perú: Fondo Editorial Banco de Crédito del Perú.
Ponce, C. (1976). Tiwanaku: Espacio, tiempo y cultura (3ra. ed.). La Paz, Bolivia: Ediciones Pumapunku.
Ravines, R. (2004). Enciclopedia de la HISTORIA GENERAL DEL PERÚ. T. 2 Las culturas preincas. (2da. ed.). Lima, Perú.
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